3-11 CLASS A AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic procedures are applied.
3-12 CLASS B AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR operations is ``clear of clouds.'' b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations: Regardless of weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots should not request a clearance to operate within Class B airspace unless the requirements of FAR Part 91.215 and Part 91.131 are met. Included among these requirements are:
1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft must be equipped with an operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil aircraft within Class B airspace unless: (a) The pilot in command holds at least a private pilot certificate; or, (b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification and has met the requirements of FAR Part 61.95.
3. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine engine-powered airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at or above the designated floors while within the lateral limits of Class B airspace.
4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft must be equipped as follows: (a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or TACAN receiver; and (b) For all operations, a two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that area; and (c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment.
3-13 CLASS C AIRSPACE
Generally, that airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and that have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although the configuration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. b. Outer Area: The normal radius will be 20NM, with some variations based on site specific requirements. The outer area extends outward from the primary airport and extends from the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the ceiling of the approach control's delegated airspace, excluding the Class C airspace and other airspace as appropriate.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: (a) Two-way radio, and (b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: Two-way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destination, and request Class C service. Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class C airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C airspace before two-way radio communications are established
3-14 CLASS D AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower. The configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and when instrument procedures are published, the airspace will normally be designed to contain the procedures.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable two-way radio is required.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: Two-way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in the Class D airspace. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the control tower on the publicized frequency and give their position, altitude, destination, and any request(s). Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class D airspace boundary to preclude entering the Class D airspace before two-way radio communications are established.
4. Aircraft Speed: Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 mph).
5. Class D airspace areas are depicted on Sectional and Terminal charts with blue segmented lines, and on IFR En Route Lows with a boxed [D].
6. Arrival extensions for instrument approach procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all extensions become Class E.
3-15 CLASS E AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: No specific equipment required by the airspace.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: No specific requirements.
c. Charts: Class E airspace below 14,500 feet MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, World, and IFR En Route Low Altitude charts.
d. Vertical limits: Except for 18,000 feet MSL, Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but rather it extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled airspace.
e. Types of Class E Airspace:
Surface area designated for an airport: When designated as a surface area for an airport, the airspace will be configured to contain all instrument procedures.
Extension to a surface area: There are Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas designated for an airport. Such airspace provides controlled airspace to contain standard instrument approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.
Airspace used for transition: There are Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the terminal or en route environment.
4. Federal Airways: The Federal airways are Class E airspace areas and, unless otherwise specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL.
3-22. IFR REQUIREMENTS
The FARs specify the pilot and aircraft equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level requirements, FAR Part 91.177 includes a requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown.
3-31. PROHIBITED AREA
Prohibited Areas contain airspace of defined dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas are established for security or other reasons associated with the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts.
3-32. RESTRICTED AREA
Restricted Areas contain airspace identified by an area on the surface of the earth within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be confined because of their nature or limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of Restricted Areas without authorization from the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted Areas are published in the Federal Register and constitute FAR Part 73.
ATC facilities apply the following procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance (including those cleared by ATC to maintain VFR-ON-TOP) via a route which lies within joint-use restricted airspace.
1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance for it to do so.
2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs the controlling facility
33-33. WARNING AREA
Warning Areas are airspace which may contain hazards to nonparticipating aircraft in international airspace. Warning Areas are established beyond the 3 mile limit. Though the activities conducted within Warning Areas may be as hazardous as those in Restricted Areas, Warning Areas cannot be legally designated as Restricted Areas because they are over international waters. Penetration of Warning Areas during periods of activity may be hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants. Official descriptions of Warning Areas may be obtained on request to the FAA, Washington, D.C.
3-34. MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS (MOA)
MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from IFR traffic. Whenever a MOA is being used, nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if IFR separation can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC will reroute or restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic.
Most training activities necessitate acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers. Military pilots conducting flight in Department of Defense aircraft within a designated and active military operations area (MOA) are exempted from the provisions of FAR Part 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibit acrobatic flight within Federal airways and Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas.
Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying within a MOA when military activity is being conducted. The activity status (active/inactive) of MOA's may change frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate real-time information concerning the MOA hours of operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.
3-35. ALERT AREA
Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an Alert Area shall be conducted in accordance with FARs, without waiver, and pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots transiting the area shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance. Information concerning these areas may be obtained upon request to the FAA, Washington, D.C.
3-36. CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS
Controlled Firing Areas contain activities which, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature of the Controlled Firing Area, as compared to other special use airspace, is that its activities are suspended immediately when spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area. There is no need to chart Controlled Firing Areas since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
4-13. AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS)
ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded noncontrol information in selected high activity terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.
ATIS information includes the time of the latest weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other pertinent remarks, instrument approach and runway in use.
4-19. TRANSPONDER OPERATION
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) is similar to and compatible with military coded radar beacon equipment. Civil MODE A is identical to military MODE 3.
Civil and military transponders should be adjusted to the ``on'' or normal operating position as late as practicable prior to takeoff and to ``off'' or ``standby'' as soon as practicable after completing landing roll, unless the change to ``standby'' has been accomplished previously at the request of ATC.
Some transponders are equipped with a MODE C automatic altitude reporting capability. This system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot increments to coded digital information which is transmitted together with MODE C framing pulses to the interrogating radar facility.
Pilots of aircraft with operating MODE C altitude reporting transponders should report exact altitude or Flight Level to the nearest hundred foot increment when establishing initial contact with an ATC facility.
TRANSPONDER IDENT FEATURE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL600, including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic procedures are applied.
3-12 CLASS B AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding the nation's busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. The configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters the airspace. An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in the area, and all aircraft that are so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. The cloud clearance requirement for VFR operations is ``clear of clouds.'' b. Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements for VFR Operations: Regardless of weather conditions, an ATC clearance is required prior to operating within Class B airspace. Pilots should not request a clearance to operate within Class B airspace unless the requirements of FAR Part 91.215 and Part 91.131 are met. Included among these requirements are:
1. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft must be equipped with an operable two-way radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B airspace.
2. No person may take off or land a civil aircraft at an airport within Class B airspace or operate a civil aircraft within Class B airspace unless: (a) The pilot in command holds at least a private pilot certificate; or, (b) The aircraft is operated by a student pilot or recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification and has met the requirements of FAR Part 61.95.
3. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each person operating a large turbine engine-powered airplane to or from a primary airport shall operate at or above the designated floors while within the lateral limits of Class B airspace.
4. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft must be equipped as follows: (a) For IFR operations, an operable VOR or TACAN receiver; and (b) For all operations, a two-way radio capable of communications with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that area; and (c) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment.
3-13 CLASS C AIRSPACE
Generally, that airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower, are serviced by a radar approach control, and that have a certain number of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. Although the configuration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from 1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation. b. Outer Area: The normal radius will be 20NM, with some variations based on site specific requirements. The outer area extends outward from the primary airport and extends from the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the ceiling of the approach control's delegated airspace, excluding the Class C airspace and other airspace as appropriate.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: (a) Two-way radio, and (b) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: Two-way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in Class C airspace. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace ATC facility on the publicized frequency and give their position, altitude, radar beacon code, destination, and request Class C service. Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class C airspace boundary to preclude entering Class C airspace before two-way radio communications are established
3-14 CLASS D AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, that airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower. The configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and when instrument procedures are published, the airspace will normally be designed to contain the procedures.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable two-way radio is required.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: Two-way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in the Class D airspace. Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the control tower on the publicized frequency and give their position, altitude, destination, and any request(s). Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class D airspace boundary to preclude entering the Class D airspace before two-way radio communications are established.
4. Aircraft Speed: Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft at or below 2,500 feet above the surface within 4 nautical miles of the primary airport of a Class D airspace area at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 knots (230 mph).
5. Class D airspace areas are depicted on Sectional and Terminal charts with blue segmented lines, and on IFR En Route Lows with a boxed [D].
6. Arrival extensions for instrument approach procedures may be Class D or Class E airspace. As a general rule, if all extensions are 2 miles or less, they remain part of the Class D surface area. However, if any one extension is greater than 2 miles, then all extensions become Class E.
3-15 CLASS E AIRSPACE
Definition: Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, Class B, Class C, or Class D, and it is controlled airspace, it is Class E airspace.
Operating Rules and Pilot/Equipment Requirements:
1. Pilot Certification: No specific certification required.
2. Equipment: No specific equipment required by the airspace.
3. Arrival or Through Flight Entry Requirements: No specific requirements.
c. Charts: Class E airspace below 14,500 feet MSL is charted on Sectional, Terminal, World, and IFR En Route Low Altitude charts.
d. Vertical limits: Except for 18,000 feet MSL, Class E airspace has no defined vertical limit but rather it extends upward from either the surface or a designated altitude to the overlying or adjacent controlled airspace.
e. Types of Class E Airspace:
Surface area designated for an airport: When designated as a surface area for an airport, the airspace will be configured to contain all instrument procedures.
Extension to a surface area: There are Class E airspace areas that serve as extensions to Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas designated for an airport. Such airspace provides controlled airspace to contain standard instrument approach procedures without imposing a communications requirement on pilots operating under VFR.
Airspace used for transition: There are Class E airspace areas beginning at either 700 or 1,200 feet AGL used to transition to/from the terminal or en route environment.
4. Federal Airways: The Federal airways are Class E airspace areas and, unless otherwise specified, extend upward from 1,200 feet to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL.
3-22. IFR REQUIREMENTS
The FARs specify the pilot and aircraft equipment requirements for IFR flight. Pilots are reminded that in addition to altitude or flight level requirements, FAR Part 91.177 includes a requirement to remain at least 1,000 feet (2,000 feet in designated mountainous terrain) above the highest obstacle within a horizontal distance of 4 nautical miles from the course to be flown.
3-31. PROHIBITED AREA
Prohibited Areas contain airspace of defined dimensions identified by an area on the surface of the earth within which the flight of aircraft is prohibited. Such areas are established for security or other reasons associated with the national welfare. These areas are published in the Federal Register and are depicted on aeronautical charts.
3-32. RESTRICTED AREA
Restricted Areas contain airspace identified by an area on the surface of the earth within which the flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions. Activities within these areas must be confined because of their nature or limitations imposed upon aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities or both. Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of Restricted Areas without authorization from the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants. Restricted Areas are published in the Federal Register and constitute FAR Part 73.
ATC facilities apply the following procedures when aircraft are operating on an IFR clearance (including those cleared by ATC to maintain VFR-ON-TOP) via a route which lies within joint-use restricted airspace.
1. If the restricted area is not active and has been released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC facility will allow the aircraft to operate in the restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance for it to do so.
2. If the restricted area is active and has not been released to the controlling agency (FAA), the ATC facility will issue a clearance which will ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it is on an approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs the controlling facility
33-33. WARNING AREA
Warning Areas are airspace which may contain hazards to nonparticipating aircraft in international airspace. Warning Areas are established beyond the 3 mile limit. Though the activities conducted within Warning Areas may be as hazardous as those in Restricted Areas, Warning Areas cannot be legally designated as Restricted Areas because they are over international waters. Penetration of Warning Areas during periods of activity may be hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants. Official descriptions of Warning Areas may be obtained on request to the FAA, Washington, D.C.
3-34. MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS (MOA)
MOAs consist of airspace of defined vertical and lateral limits established for the purpose of separating certain military training activities from IFR traffic. Whenever a MOA is being used, nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA if IFR separation can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC will reroute or restrict nonparticipating IFR traffic.
Most training activities necessitate acrobatic or abrupt flight maneuvers. Military pilots conducting flight in Department of Defense aircraft within a designated and active military operations area (MOA) are exempted from the provisions of FAR Part 91.303(c) and (d) which prohibit acrobatic flight within Federal airways and Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E surface areas.
Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution while flying within a MOA when military activity is being conducted. The activity status (active/inactive) of MOA's may change frequently. Therefore, pilots should contact any FSS within 100 miles of the area to obtain accurate real-time information concerning the MOA hours of operation. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.
3-35. ALERT AREA
Alert Areas are depicted on aeronautical charts to inform nonparticipating pilots of areas that may contain a high volume of pilot training or an unusual type of aerial activity. Pilots should be particularly alert when flying in these areas. All activity within an Alert Area shall be conducted in accordance with FARs, without waiver, and pilots of participating aircraft as well as pilots transiting the area shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance. Information concerning these areas may be obtained upon request to the FAA, Washington, D.C.
3-36. CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS
Controlled Firing Areas contain activities which, if not conducted in a controlled environment, could be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. The distinguishing feature of the Controlled Firing Area, as compared to other special use airspace, is that its activities are suspended immediately when spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions indicate an aircraft might be approaching the area. There is no need to chart Controlled Firing Areas since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
4-13. AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS)
ATIS is the continuous broadcast of recorded noncontrol information in selected high activity terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller effectiveness and to relieve frequency congestion by automating the repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.
ATIS information includes the time of the latest weather sequence, ceiling, visibility, obstructions to visibility, temperature, dew point (if available), wind direction (magnetic), and velocity, altimeter, other pertinent remarks, instrument approach and runway in use.
4-19. TRANSPONDER OPERATION
Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System (ATCRBS) is similar to and compatible with military coded radar beacon equipment. Civil MODE A is identical to military MODE 3.
Civil and military transponders should be adjusted to the ``on'' or normal operating position as late as practicable prior to takeoff and to ``off'' or ``standby'' as soon as practicable after completing landing roll, unless the change to ``standby'' has been accomplished previously at the request of ATC.
Some transponders are equipped with a MODE C automatic altitude reporting capability. This system converts aircraft altitude in 100 foot increments to coded digital information which is transmitted together with MODE C framing pulses to the interrogating radar facility.
Pilots of aircraft with operating MODE C altitude reporting transponders should report exact altitude or Flight Level to the nearest hundred foot increment when establishing initial contact with an ATC facility.
TRANSPONDER IDENT FEATURE
1. The transponder shall be operated only as specified by ATC. Activate the ``IDENT'' feature only upon request of the ATC controller.
Military pilots operating VFR or IFR within restricted/warning areas should adjust their transponders to code 4000 unless another code has been assigned by ATC.
In general, the FAR requires aircraft to be equipped with Mode C transponders when operating:
(a) at or above 10,000 feet MSL over the 48 contiguous states or the District of Columbia, excluding that airspace below 2,500 feet AGL;
(b) within 30 miles of a Class B airspace primary airport, below 10,000 feet MSL. Balloons, gliders, and aircraft not equipped with an engine driven electrical system are excepted from the above requirements when operating below the floor of Class A airspace and/or; outside of a Class B airspace and below the ceiling of the Class B Airspace (or 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower);
(c) within and above all Class C airspace, up to 10,000 feet MSL;
(d) within 10 miles of certain designated airports, excluding that airspace which is both outside the Class D surface area and below 1,200 feet AGL. Balloons, gliders and aircraft not equipped with an engine driven electrical system are excepted from this requirement. 3. FAR Part 99.12 requires all aircraft flying into, within, or across the contiguous U.S. ADIZ be equipped with a Mode C or Mode S transponder. Balloons, gilders and aircraft not equipped with an engine driven electrical system are excepted from this requirement.
Listen before you transmit. Many times you can get the information you want through ATIS or by monitoring the frequency.
Think before keying your transmitter. Know what you want to say and if it is lengthy; e.g., a flight plan or IFR position report, jot it down.
4-32. CONTACT PROCEDURES
Initial Contact-- 1. The terms initial contact or initial callup means the first radio call you make to a given facility or the first call to a different controller or FSS specialist within a facility. Use the following format:
(a) Name of the facility being called;
(b) Your full aircraft identification as filed in the flight plan or as discussed under Aircraft Call Signs below;
(c) The type of message to follow or your request if it is short, and
(d) The word ``Over'' if required.
(e) EXAMPLE: ``NEW YORK RADIO, MOONEY THREE ONE ONE ECHO.'' EXAMPLE: ``COLUMBIA GROUND, CESSNA THREE ONE SIX ZERO FOXTROT, I-F-R MEMPHIS.'' EXAMPLE: ``MIAMI CENTER, BARON FIVE SIX THREE HOTEL, REQUEST V-F-R TRAFFIC ADVISORIES.''
4-42. COMMUNICATIONS WITH TOWER WHEN AIRCRAFT TRANSMITTER OR RECEIVER OR BOTH ARE INOPERATIVE
Arriving Aircraft.
1. Receiver inoperative-If you have reason to believe your receiver is inoperative, remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined; then, advise the tower of your type aircraft, position, altitude, intention to land, and request that you be controlled with light signals.When you are approximately 3 to 5 miles from the airport, advise the tower of your position and join the airport traffic pattern. From this point on, watch the tower for light signals. Thereafter, if a complete pattern is made, transmit your position downwind and/or turning base leg.
2. Transmitter inoperative--Remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern. Monitor the primary local control frequency as depicted on Sectional Charts for landing or traffic information, and look for a light signal which may be addressed to your aircraft. During hours of daylight, acknowledge tower transmissions or light signals by rocking your wings. At night, acknowledge by blinking the landing or navigation lights. To acknowledge tower transmissions during daylight hours, hovering helicopters will turn in the direction of the controlling facility and flash the landing light. While in flight, helicopters should show their acknowledgement of receiving a transmission by making shallow banks in opposite directions. At night, helicopters will acknowledge receipt of transmissions by flashing either the landing or the search light.
3. Transmitter and receiver inoperative--Remain outside or above the Class D surface area until the direction and flow of traffic has been determined; then, join the airport traffic pattern and maintain visual contact with the tower to receive light signals. Acknowledge light signals as noted above.
4-71. OPTION APPROACH
The ``Cleared for the Option'' procedure will permit an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to make a touch-and-go, low approach, missed approach, stop-and-go, or full stop landing.
4-72. USE OF AIRCRAFT LIGHTS
Aircraft position and anticollision lights are required to be lighted on aircraft operated from sunset to sunrise. Anticollision lights, however, need not be lighted when the pilot-in-command determines that, because of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to turn off the lights (FAR Part 91.209). For example, strobe lights should be turned off on the ground when they adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight when there are adverse reflection from clouds.
4-80. CLEARANCE
``The pilot-in-command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of that aircraft.'' If ATC issues a clearance that would cause a pilot to deviate from a rule or regulation, or in the pilot's opinion, would place the aircraft in jeopardy, IT IS THE PILOT'S RESPONSIBILITY TO REQUEST AN AMENDED CLEARANCE.
When weather conditions permit, during the time an IFR flight is operating, it is the direct responsibility of the pilot to avoid other aircraft since VFR flights may be operating in the same area without the knowledge of ATC. Traffic clearances provide standard separation only between IFR flights.
4-82. CLEARANCE ITEMS
ATC clearances normally contain the following:
a. Clearance Limit.--The traffic clearance issued prior to departure will normally authorize flight to the airport of intended landing. Under certain conditions, at some locations a short-range clearance procedure is utilized whereby a clearance is issued to a fix within or just outside of the terminal area and the pilot is advised of the frequency on which he will receive the long-range clearance direct from the center controller.
b. Altitude Data-- 1. The altitude or flight level instructions in an ATC clearance normally require that a pilot ``MAINTAIN'' the altitude or flight level at which the flight will operate when in controlled airspace. Altitude or flight level changes while en route should be requested prior to the time the change is desired.
c. The term ``cruise'' may be used instead of ``MAINTAIN'' to assign a block of airspace to a pilot from the minimum IFR altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the cruise clearance. The pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the pilot. However, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, he may not return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance.
1. Whenever an aircraft has been cleared to a fix other than the destination airport and delay is expected, it is the responsibility of the ATC controller to issue complete holding instructions (unless the pattern is charted), an EFC time, and his best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay.
2. If the holding pattern is charted and the controller doesn't issue complete holding instructions, the pilot is expected to hold as depicted on the appropriate chart. When the pattern is charted, the controller may omit all holding instructions except the charted holding direction and the statement AS PUBLISHED, e.g., ``HOLD EAST AS PUBLISHED.'' Controllers shall always issue complete holding instructions when pilots request them.
3. If no holding pattern is charted and holding instructions have not been issued, the pilot should ask ATC for holding instructions prior to reaching the fix. This procedure will eliminate the possibility of an aircraft entering a holding pattern other than that desired by ATC. If the pilot is unable to obtain holding instructions prior to reaching the fix (due to frequency congestion, stuck microphone, etc.), he should hold in a standard pattern on the course on which he approached the fix and request further clearance as soon as possible. In this event, the altitude/flight level of the aircraft at the clearance limit will be protected so that separation will be provided as required.
4. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not been received, the pilot is expected to start a speed reduction so that he will cross the fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
5. When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as possible and, whenever possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
6. Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.
4-83. AMENDED CLEARANCES
Amendments to the initial clearance will be issued at any time an air traffic controller deems such action necessary to avoid possible confliction between aircraft. Clearances will require that a flight ``hold'' or change altitude prior to reaching the point where standard separation from other IFR traffic would no longer exist.
4-85. PILOT RESPONSIBILITY UPON CLEARANCE ISSUANCE
a. Record ATC clearance--When conducting an IFR operation, make a written record of your clearance.
b. ATC Clearance/Instruction Readback--Pilots of airborne aircraft should read back those parts of ATC clearances and instructions containing altitude assignments or vectors as a means of mutual verification. The readback of the ``numbers'' serves as a double check between pilots and controllers and reduces the kinds of communications errors that occur when a number is either ``misheard'' or is incorrect.
5-7. FLIGHT PLAN--IFR FLIGHTS
General-- 1. Prior to departure from within, or prior to entering controlled airspace, a pilot must submit a complete flight plan and receive an air traffic clearance, if weather conditions are below VFR minimums. Instrument flight plans may be submitted to the nearest FSS or ATCT either in person or by telephone (or by radio if no other means are available). Pilots should file IFR flight plans at least 30 minutes prior to estimated time of departure to preclude possible delay in receiving a departure clearance from ATC. To minimize your delay in entering Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E surface area at destination when IFR weather conditions exist or are forecast at that airport, an IFR flight plan should be filed before departure. Otherwise, a 30 minute delay is not unusual in receiving an ATC clearance because of time spent in processing flight plan data. Traffic saturation frequently prevents control personnel from accepting flight plans by radio. In such cases, the pilot is advised to contact the nearest FSS for the purpose of filing the flight plan.
Direct Flights-- 1. All or any portions of the route which will not be flown on the radials or courses of established airways or routes, such as direct route flights, must be defined by indicating the radio fixes over which the flight will pass. Fixes selected to define the route shall be those over which the position of the aircraft can be accurately determined. Such fixes automatically become compulsory reporting points for the flight, unless advised otherwise by ATC.
5-31. POSITION REPORTING
Position Identification—
1. When a position report is to be made passing a VOR radio facility, the time reported should be the time at which the first complete reversal of the ``to/from'' indicator is accomplished.
2. When a position report is made passing a facility by means of an airborne ADF, the time reported should be the time at which the indicator makes a complete reversal.
Position Reporting Requirements—
1. Flights along airways or routes--A position report is required by all flights regardless of altitude, including those operating in accordance with an ATC clearance specifying ``VFR ON TOP,'' over each designated compulsory reporting point along the route being flown.
2. Flight Along a Direct Route--Regardless of the altitude or flight level being flown, including flights operating in accordance with an ATC clearance specifying ``VFR ON TOP'', pilots shall report over each reporting point used in the flight plan to define the route of flight.
3. Flights in a Radar Environment--When informed by ATC that their aircraft are in ``Radar Contact,'' pilots should discontinue position reports over designated reporting points. They should resume normal position reporting when ATC advises ``RADAR CONTACT LOST'' or ``RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.''
Position Report Items—
1. Position reports should include the following items:
(a) Identification.
(b) Position.
(c) Time.
(d) Altitude or flight level (include actual altitude or flight level when operating on a clearance specifying VFR-ON-TOP.)
(e) Type of flight plan (not required in IFR position reports made directly to ARTCC's or approach control),
(f) ETA and name of next reporting point.
(g) The name only of the next succeeding reporting point along the route of flight, and
(h) Pertinent remarks.
5-32. ADDITIONAL REPORTS
The following reports should be made to ATC or FSS facilities without a specific ATC request:
1. At all times:
(a) When vacating any previously assigned altitude or flight level for a newly assigned altitude or flight level.
(b) When an altitude change will be made if operating on a clearance specifying VFR ON TOP.
(c) When unable to climb/descend at a rate of a least 500 feet per minute.
(d) When approach has been missed. (Request clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative airport, another approach, etc.)
(e) Change in the average true airspeed (at cruising altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or 10 knots (whichever is greater) from that filed in the flight plan.
(f) The time and altitude or flight level upon reaching a holding fix or point to which cleared.
(g) When leaving any assigned holding fix or point.
NOTE--The reports in subparagraphs (f) and (g) may be omitted by pilots of aircraft involved in instrument training at military terminal area facilities when radar service is being provided.
(i) Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR, TACAN, ADF, low frequency navigation receiver capability, complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability or impairment of air/ground communications capability. Reports should include aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree to which the capability to operate under IFR in the ATC system is impaired, and the nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.
(j) Any information relating to the safety of flight.
2. When not in radar contact:
(a) When leaving final approach fix inbound on final approach (non precision approach) or when leaving the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound on final approach (precision approach).
(b) A corrected estimate at anytime it becomes apparent that an estimate as previously submitted is in error in excess of 3 minutes. Pilots encountering weather conditions which have not been forecast, or hazardous conditions which have been forecast, are expected to forward a report of such weather to ATC. (Reference--Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs), paragraph 7-19 and FAR Part 91.183(b) and (c).)
5-35. CHANGEOVER POINTS (COP'S)
a. COP's are prescribed for Federal Airways, jet routes, Area Navigation routes, or other direct routes for which an MEA is designated under FAR Part 95. The COP is a point along the route or airway segment between two adjacent navigation facilities or way points where changeover in navigation guidance should occur. At this point, the pilot should change navigation receiver frequency from the station behind the aircraft to the station ahead.
b. The COP is located midway between the navigation facilities for straight route segments, or at the intersection of radials or courses forming a dogleg in the case of dogleg route segments. When the COP is NOT located at the midway point, aeronautical charts will depict the COP location and give the mileage to the radio aids.
5-36. HOLDING
Entry Procedures
(a) Parallel Procedure: When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (a), the parallel entry procedure would be to turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the non-holding side for one minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern thru more than 180 degrees, and return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
(b) Teardrop Procedure: When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (b), the teardrop entry procedure would be to fly to the fix, turn outbound to a heading for a 30 degree teardrop entry within the pattern (on the holding side) for a period of one minute, then turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course.
(c) Direct Entry Procedure: When approaching the holding fix from anywhere in sector (c), the direct entry procedure would be to fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.
(d) While Other entry procedures may enable the aircraft to enter the holding pattern and remain within protected airspace, the parallel, teardrop and direct entries are the procedures for entry and holding recommended by the FAA. 4.
Timing-- (a) Inbound Leg: (1) At or below 14,000 Ft. MSL-1 minute.
Outbound leg timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.
Pilot Action
(a) Start speed reduction when 3 minutes or less from the holding fix. Cross the holding fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed.
(b) Make all turns during entry and while holding at: (1) 3 degrees per second, or (2) 30 degree bank angle, or
(c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments; e.g., if correcting left by 8 degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees when outbound.
(d) Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +/-5 degrees in heading is considered to be within allowable good operating limits for determining entry
5-44. INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS
1. Minimum Altitude will be depicted with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value.
2. Maximum Altitude will be depicted with the altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at or below the depicted value.
3. Mandatory Altitude will be depicted with the altitude value both underscored and overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value.
Minimum Safe Altitudes (MSA) are published for emergency use on instrument approach procedure (IAP) charts except RNAV IAPs. The MSA is defined using NDB or VOR type facilities within 25 NM (normally) or 30 NM (maximum) of the airport. The MSA has a 25 NM (normally) or 30 NM (maximum) radius. If there is no NDB or VOR facility within 30 NM of the airport, there will be no MSA. The altitude shown provides at least 1,000 feet of clearance above the highest obstacle in the defined sector. As many as four sectors may be depicted with different altitudes for each sector displayed in rectangular boxes in the plan view of the chart. A single altitude for the entire area may be shown in the lower right portion of the plan view. Navigational course guidance is not assured at the MSA within these sectors.
Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MVA) are established for use by ATC when radar ATC is exercised. MVA charts are prepared by air traffic facilities at locations where there are numerous different minimum IFR altitudes. Each MVA chart has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring of aircraft within the sector at the MVA. Each sector boundary is at least 3 miles from the obstruction determining the MVA. To avoid a large sector with an excessively high MVA due to an isolated prominent obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed in a buffer area whose boundaries are at least 3 miles from the obstruction. This is done to facilitate vectoring around the obstruction.
The minimum vectoring altitude in each sector provides 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle in nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas. Where lower MVAs are required in designated mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with terminal routes or to permit vectoring to an IAP, 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized with the use of Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR). The minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least 300 feet above the floor of controlled airspace.
a. An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding fix and subsequently ``cleared . . . approach'' has not received new routing. Even though clearance for the approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft reaching the holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot to proceed via the holding fix (his last assigned route), and the feeder route associated with that fix (if a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to the initial approach fix (IAF) to commence the approach. When cleared for the approach, the published off airway (feeder) routes that lead from the en route structure to the IAF are part of the approach clearance.
b. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding fix, and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot should commence his approach via the published feeder route; i.e., the aircraft would not be expected to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot is expected to commence his approach in a similar manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is located along the route of flight to the holding fix.
c. If a route of flight directly to the initial approach fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller with phraseology to include the words ``direct . . .,'' ``proceed direct'' or a similar phrase which the pilot can interpret without question. If the pilot is uncertain of his clearance, he should immediately query ATC as to what route of flight is desired.
5-46. INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES
a. Minimums are specified for various aircraft approach categories based upon a value 1.3 times the stalling speed of the aircraft in the landing configuration at maximum certificated gross landing weight.
b. When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored, the pilot, when an approach clearance is received, shall, in addition to complying with the minimum altitudes for IFR operations (FAR Part 91.177), maintain his last assigned altitude unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC, or until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP. After the aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply to descent within each succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while being radar vectored, ATC will, except when conducting a radar approach, issue an IFR approach clearance only after the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an altitude to maintain until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure. For this purpose, the Procedure Turn of a published IAP shall not be considered a segment of that IAP until the aircraft reaches the initial fix or navigation facility upon which the procedure turn is predicated.
c. When executing an instrument approach and in radio contact with an FAA facility, unless in ``radar contact,'' report passing the final approach fix inbound (non precision approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach).
5-47. PROCEDURE TURN
a. A procedure turn is the maneuver prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish the aircraft inbound on an intermediate or final approach course. It is a required maneuver except when the symbol NoPT is shown, when RADAR VECTORING is provided, when a holding pattern is published in lieu of procedure turn, when conducting a timed approach, or when the procedure turn is not authorized. The altitude prescribed for the procedure turn is a minimum altitude until the aircraft is established on the inbound course. The maneuver must be completed within the distance specified in the profile view.
1. On U.S. Government charts, a barbed arrow indicates the direction or side of the outbound course on which the procedure turn is made. Headings are provided for course reversal using the 45 degree type procedure turn. However, the point at which the turn may be commenced and the type and rate of turn is left to the discretion of the pilot. Some of the options are the 45 degree procedure turn, the racetrack pattern, the tear-drop procedure turn, or the 80 degree - 260 degree course reversal. Some procedure turns are specified by procedural track. These turns must be flown exactly as depicted.
2. A procedure turn need not be established when an approach can be made from a properly aligned holding pattern. In such cases, the holding pattern is established over an intermediate fix or a final approach fix. The holding pattern maneuver is completed when the aircraft is established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC. If the pilot elects to make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude or to become better established on course, it is his responsibility to so advise ATC when he receives his approach clearance.
3. A procedure turn is not required when an approach can be made directly from a specified intermediate fix to the final approach fix. In such cases, the term ``NoPT'' is used with the appropriate course and altitude to denote that the procedure turn is not required.
b. Limitations on Procedure Turns.
1. In the case of a radar initial approach to a final approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a holding fix, or where the procedure specifies ``NoPT'', no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when he receives his final approach clearance, he so advises ATC and a clearance is received.
2. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course reversal is required, this type turn must be executed.
3. When holding pattern replaces the procedure turn, the standard entry and the holding pattern must be followed except when RADAR VECTORING is provided or when NoPT is shown on the approach course. As in the procedure turn, the descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may not commence until the aircraft is established on the inbound course.
4. The absence of the procedure turn barb in the Plan View indicates that a procedure turn is not authorized for that procedure.
5-49. RADAR APPROACHES
a. The only airborne radio equipment required for radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter and receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft to align it with the runway centerline. The controller continues the vectors to keep the aircraft on course until the pilot can complete the approach and landing by visual reference to the surface. There are two types of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and Surveillance (ASR).
b. A radar approach may be given to any aircraft upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft in distress or to expedite traffic, however, an ASR might not be approved unless there is an ATC operational requirement, or in an unusual or emergency situation. Acceptance of a PAR or ASR by a pilot does not waive the prescribed weather minimums for the airport or for the particular aircraft operator concerned. The decision to make a radar approach when the reported weather is below the established minimums rests with the pilot.
c. PAR and ASR minimums are published on separate pages in the NOS Terminal Procedures Publication (TPP).
1. A PRECISION APPROACH (PAR) is one in which a controller provides highly accurate navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation to a pilot. Pilots are given headings to fly, to direct them to, and keep their aircraft aligned with the extended centerline of the landing runway. They are told to anticipate glide path interception approximately 10 to 30 seconds before it occurs and when to start descent.
2. A SURVEILLANCE APPROACH (ASR) is one in which a controller provides navigational guidance in azimuth only. The pilot is furnished headings to fly to align his aircraft with the extended centerline of the landing runway.
3. A NO-GYRO APPROACH is available to a pilot under radar control who experiences circumstances wherein his directional gyro or other stabilized compass is inoperative or inaccurate.
5-55. APPROACH AND LANDING MINIMUMS
a. Landing Minimums. The rules applicable to landing minimums are contained in FAR Part 91.175.
b. Published Approach Minimums. Approach minimums are published for different aircraft categories and consist of a minimum altitude (DH, MDA) and required visibility. These minimums are determined by applying the appropriate TERPS criteria. When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision final segment, two sets of minimums may be published: one, for the pilot that is able to identify the fix, and a second for the pilot that cannot. Two sets of minimums may also be published when a second altimeter source is used in the procedure.
c. Obstacle Clearance. Final approach obstacle clearance is provided from the start of the final segment to the runway or Missed Approach Point, whichever occurs last.
5-56. MISSED APPROACH
a. When a landing cannot be accomplished, advise ATC and, upon reaching the Missed Approach Point defined on the approach procedure chart, the pilot must comply with the missed approach instructions for the procedure being used or with an alternate missed approach procedure specified by ATC.
b. Protected obstacle clearance areas for missed approach are predicated on the assumption that the abort is initiated at the missed approach point not lower than the MDA or DH.
c. If visual reference is lost while circling-to-land from an instrument approach, the missed approach specified for that particular procedure must be followed (unless an alternate missed approach procedure is specified by ATC). To become established on the prescribed missed approach course, the pilot should make an initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and continue the turn until he is established on the missed approach course.
d. At locations where ATC Radar Service is provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors when provided by ATC in lieu of the published missed approach procedure.
e. When approach has been missed, request clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative airport, another approach, etc.
5-57. VISUAL APPROACH
When it will be operationally beneficial, ATC may authorize an aircraft to conduct a visual approach to an airport or to follow another aircraft when flight to, and landing at, the airport can be accomplished in VFR weather. The aircraft must have the airport or the identified preceding aircraft in sight before the clearance is issued.
5-59. CONTACT APPROACH
a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have at least 1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably expect to continue to the destination airport in those conditions, may request ATC authorization for a contact approach.
b. Controllers may authorize a contact approach provided:
1. The Contact Approach is specifically requested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this approach.
2.The reported ground visibility at the destination airport is at least 1 statute mile.
3.The contact approach will be made to an airport having a standard or special instrument approach procedure.
4. Approved separation is applied between aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and other IFR or special VFR aircraft.
5-74. MISSED APPROACH
Pilot-- 1. Executes a missed approach when one of the following conditions exist:
(a) Arrival at the Missed Approach Point (MAP) or the Decision Height (DH) and visual reference to the runway environment is insufficient to complete the landing.
(b) Determined that a safe landing is not possible.
(c) Instructed to do so by ATC..................Sky wings
